请帮忙找一篇英文建筑类的文章

请帮忙找一篇英文建筑类的文章
请帮忙找一篇英文建筑类的文章

请帮忙找一篇英文建筑类的文章
Architecture,the art of building in which human requirements and construction materials are related so as to furnish practical use as well as an aesthetic solution,thus differing from the pure utility of engineering construction.As an art,architecture is essentially abstract and nonrepresentational and involves the manipulation of the relationships of spaces,volumes,planes,masses,and voids.Time is also an important factor in architecture,since a building is usually comprehended in a succession of experiences rather than all at once.In most architecture there is no one vantage point from which the whole structure can be understood.The use of light and shadow,as well as surface decoration,can greatly enhance a structure.
The analysis of building types provides an insight into past cultures and eras.Behind each of the greater styles lies not a casual trend nor a vogue,but a period of serious and urgent experimentation directed toward answering the needs of a specific way of life.Climate,methods of labor,available materials,and economy of means all impose their dictates.Each of the greater styles has been aided by the discovery of new construction methods.Once developed,a method survives tenaciously,giving way only when social changes or new building techniques have reduced it.That evolutionary process is exemplified by the history of modern architecture,which developed from the first uses of structural iron and steel in the mid-19th cent.
Until the 20th cent.there were three great developments in architectural construction鈥攖he post-and-lintel,or trabeated,system; the arch system,either the cohesive type,employing plastic materials hardening into a homogeneous mass,or the thrust type,in which the loads are received and counterbalanced at definite points; and the modern steel-skeleton system.In the 20th cent.new forms of building have been devised,with the use of reinforced concrete and the development of geodesic and stressed-skin (light material,reinforced) structures.
See also articles under countries,e.g.,American architecture; styles,e.g.,baroque; periods,e.g.,Gothic architecture and art; individual architects,e.g.,Andrea Palladio; individual stylistic and structural elements,e.g.,tracery,orientation; specific building types,e.g.,pagoda,apartment house.
Architecture of the Ancient World
In Egyptian architecture,to which belong some of the earliest extant structures to be called architecture (erected by the Egyptians before 3000 B.C.),the post-and-lintel system was employed exclusively and produced the earliest stone columnar buildings in history.The architecture of W Asia from the same era employed the same system; however,arched construction was also known and used.The Chaldaeans and Assyrians,dependent upon clay as their chief material,built vaulted roofs of damp mud bricks that adhered to form a solid shell.
After generations of experimentation with buildings of limited variety the Greeks gave to the simple post-and-lintel system the purest,most perfect expression it was to attain (see Parthenon; orders of architecture).Roman architecture,borrowing and combining the columns of Greece and the arches of Asia,produced a wide variety of monumental buildings throughout the Western world.Their momentous invention of concrete enabled the imperial builders to exploit successfully the vault construction of W Asia and to cover vast unbroken floor spaces with great vaults and domes,as in the rebuilt Pantheon (2d cent.A.D.; see under pantheon).
The Evolution of Styles in the Christian Era
The Romans and the early Christians also used the wooden truss for roofing the wide spans of their basilica halls.Neither Greek,Chinese,nor Japanese architecture used the vault system of construction.However,in the Asian division of the Roman Empire,vault development continued; Byzantine architects experimented with new principles and developed the pendentive,used brilliantly in the 6th cent.for the Church of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople.
The Romanesque architecture of the early Middle Ages was notable for strong,simple,massive forms and vaults executed in cut stone.In Lombard Romanesque (11th cent.) the Byzantine concentration of vault thrusts was improved by the device of ribs and of piers to support them.The idea of an organic supporting and buttressing skeleton of masonry (see buttress),here appearing in embryo,became the vitalizing aim of the medieval builders.In 13th-century Gothic architecture it emerged in perfected form,as in the Amiens and Chartres cathedrals.
The birth of Renaissance architecture (15th cent.) inaugurated a period of several hundred years in Western architecture during which the multiple and complex buildings of the modern world began to emerge,while at the same time no new and compelling structural conceptions appeared.The forms and ornaments of Roman antiquity were resuscitated again and again and were ordered into numberless new combinations,and structure served chiefly as a convenient tool for attaining these effects.The complex,highly decorated baroque style was the chief manifestation of the 17th-century architectural aesthetic.The Georgian style was among architecture's notable 18th-century expressions (see Georgian architecture).The first half of the 19th cent.was given over to the classic revival and the Gothic revival.
New World,New Architectures
The architects of the later 19th cent.found themselves in a world being reshaped by science,industry,and speed.A new eclecticism arose,such as the architecture based on the École des Beaux-Arts,and what is commonly called Victorian architecture in Britain and the United States.The needs of a new society pressed them,while steel,reinforced concrete,and electricity were among the many new technical means at their disposal.
After more than a half-century of assimilation and experimentation,modern architecture,often called the International style,produced an astonishing variety of daring and original buildings,often steel substructures sheathed in glass.The Bauhaus was a strong influence on modern architecture.As the line between architecture and engineering became a shadow,20th-century architecture often approached engineering,and modern works of engineering鈥攁irplane hangars,for example鈥攐ften aimed at and achieved an undeniable beauty.More recently,postmodern architecture (see postmodernism),which exploits and expands the technical innovations of modernism while often incorporating stylistic elements from other architectural styles or periods,has become an international movement.

Structure
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
"Structures" redirects here. For other uses, see Structure (disambiguation).
Structure is a fundamental, tangible or intangible notion refer...

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Structure
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
"Structures" redirects here. For other uses, see Structure (disambiguation).
Structure is a fundamental, tangible or intangible notion referring to the recognition, observation, nature, and permanence of patterns and relationships of entities. This notion may itself be an object, such as a built structure, or an attribute, such as the structure of society. From a child's verbal description of a snowflake, to the detailed scientific analysis of the properties of magnetic fields, the concept of structure is now often an essential foundation of nearly every mode of inquiry and discovery in science, philosophy, and art.[1] In early 20th-century and earlier thought, form[disambiguation needed ] often plays a role comparable to that of structure in contemporary thought. The neo-Kantianism of Ernst Cassirer (cf. his Philosophy of Symbolic Forms, completed in 1929 and published in English translation in the 1950s) is sometimes regarded as a precursor of the later shift to structuralism and poststructuralism.[2]
The description of structure implicitly offers an account of what a system is made of: a configuration of items, a collection of inter-related components or services. A structure may be a hierarchy (a cascade of one-to-many relationships), a network featuring many-to-many links, or a lattice featuring connections between components that are neighbors in space.
A formalized interpretation of the structure is compiled as semiotics of the structure.
Contents [hide]
1 Types of structure
1.1 Physical structure
1.2 Biological structure
1.3 Chemical structure
1.4 Musical composition
1.5 Social structure
1.6 Data structure
2 See also
3 References
[edit]Types of structure
[edit]Physical structure
In engineering and architecture, a structure is a body or assemblage of bodies in space to form a system capable of supporting loads. Physical structures include man-made and natural arrangements. Buildings, aircraft, soap films, skeletons, anthills, beaver dams and salt domes are all examples of physical structures. The effects of loads on physical structures are determined through structural analysis. Structural engineering refers to engineering of physical structures.
Built structures are a subset of physical structures resulting from construction. These are divided into buildings and nonbuilding structures, and make up the infrastructure of a human society. Built structures are composed of structural elements such as columns, beams and trusses. Built structures are broadly divided by their varying design approaches and standards, into categories including Building structures, Architectural structures, Civil engineering structures and Mechanical structures.
[edit]Biological structure
Main article: Biological organisation
In biology, structures exist at all levels of organization, ranging hierarchically from the atomic and molecular to the cellular, tissue, organ, organismic, population and ecosystem level. Usually, a higher-level structure is composed of multiple copies of a lower-level structure.
[edit]Chemical structure
Main article: Chemical structure
Chemistry is the science treating matter at the atomic to macromolecular scale, the reactions, transformations and aggregations of matter, as well as accompanying energy and entropy changes during these processes. The chemical structure refers to both molecular geometry and to electronic structure. The structural formula of a chemical compound is a graphical representation of the molecular structure showing how the atoms are arranged. A protein structure is the three dimensional coordinates of the atoms within (macro) molecules made of protein.
[edit]Musical composition
Music is an art form consisting of sound and silence expressed through time. The term musical form, a type of structure, refers to two related concepts:
the type of composition (for example, a musical work can have the form of a symphony, a concerto, or other generic type)
the structure of a particular piece (for example, a piece can be written in binary form, sonata form, as a fugue, etc.)
[edit]Social structure
Main article: Social structure
A social structure is a pattern of relations. They are social organizations of individuals in various life situations. Structures are applicable to people in how a society is as a system organized by a characteristic pattern of relationships. This is known as the social organization of the group. Sociologists have studied the changing structure of these groups. Structure and agency are two confronted theories about human behaviour. The debate surrounding the influence of structure and agency on human thought is one of the central issues in sociology. In this context "agency" refers to the capacity of individual humans to act independently and to make their own free choices. "Structure" here refers to those factors such as social class, religion, gender, ethnicity, customs etc. which seem to limit or influence the opportunities that individuals have.
[edit]Data structure
Main article: Data structure
In computer science, a data structure is a way of storing data in a computer so that it can be used efficiently. Often a carefully chosen data structure will allow the most efficient algorithm to be used. The choice of the data structure often begins from the choice of an abstract data type. A well-designed data structure allows a variety of critical operations to be performed, using as few resources, both execution time and memory space, as possible. Data structures are implemented in a programming language as data types and the references (e.g. relationships, links and pointers) and operations that are possible with them. For structure tables and structure functions, see data structure.

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