英语翻译有关唐朝政治制度 或者公文制度 麻烦著名 文献作者 出版社 和年代版本

英语翻译有关唐朝政治制度 或者公文制度 麻烦著名 文献作者 出版社 和年代版本
英语翻译
有关唐朝政治制度 或者公文制度
麻烦著名 文献作者 出版社 和年代版本

英语翻译有关唐朝政治制度 或者公文制度 麻烦著名 文献作者 出版社 和年代版本
Initial reforms
Taizong set out to solve internal problems within the government which had constantly plagued past dynasties. Building upon the Sui legal code, he issued a new legal code that subsequent Chinese dynasties would model theirs upon, as well as neighboring polities in Vietnam, Korea, and Japan. The earliest law code to survive though was the one established in the year 653, which was divided into 500 articles specifying different crimes and penalties ranging from ten blows with a light stick, one hundred blows with a heavy rod, exile, penal servitude, or execution. The legal code clearly distinguished different levels of severity in meted punishments when different members of the social and political hierarchy committed the same crime. For example, the severity of punishment was different when a servant or nephew killed a master or an uncle than when a master or uncle killed a servant or nephew. The Tang Code was largely retained by later codes such as the early Ming Dynasty (1368–1644) code of 1397, yet there were several revisions in later times, such as improved property rights for women during the Song Dynasty (960–1279).
The Tang had three departments (省, shěng), which were obliged to draft, review, and implement policies respectively. There were also six ministries (部, bù) under the administrations that implemented policy, each of which was assigned different tasks. These divisional state bureaus included the personnel administration, finance, rites, military, justice, and public works—an administrative model which would last until the fall of the Qing Dynasty (1644–1912). Although the founders of the Tang related to the glory of the earlier Han Dynasty (202 BC–220 AD), the basis for much of their administrative organization was very similar to the previous Southern and Northern Dynasties. The Northern Zhou (557–581) divisional militia (fubing) was continued by the Tang government, along with farmer-soldiers serving in rotation from the capital or frontier in order to receive appropriated farmland. The equal-field system of the Northern Wei Dynasty (386–534) was also kept, although there were a few modifications.
Although the central and local governments kept an enormous number of records about land property in order to assess taxes, it became common practice in the Tang for literate and affluent people to create their own private documents and signed contracts. These had their own signature and that of a witness and scribe in order to prove in court (if necessary) that their claim to property was legitimate. The prototype of this actually existed since the ancient Han Dynasty, while contractual language became even more common and embedded into Chinese literary culture in later dynasties.
The center of the political power of the Tang was the capital city of Chang'an (modern Xi'an), where the emperor maintained his large palace quarters, and entertained political emissaries with music, sports, acrobatic stunts, poetry, paintings, and dramatic theater performances. The capital was also filled with incredible amounts of riches and resources to spare. When the Chinese prefectural government officials traveled to the capital in the year 643 to give the annual report of the affairs in their districts, Emperor Taizong discovered that many had no proper quarters to rest in, and were renting rooms with merchants. Therefore, Emperor Taizong ordered the government agencies in charge of municipal construction to build every visiting official his own private mansion in the capital.
Religion and politics
From the outset, religion played a role in Tang politics. In his bid for power, Li Yuan had attracted a following by claiming descent from the Daoist sage Laozi (fl. 6th century BC). People bidding for office would have monks from Buddhist temples pray for them in public in return for cash donations or gifts if the person was to be selected. Before the persecution of Buddhism in the 9th century, Buddhism and Daoism were accepted side by side, and Emperor Xuanzong of Tang (r. 712–756) invited monks and clerics of both religions to his court. At the same time Xuanzong exalted the ancient Laozi by granting him grand titles, wrote commentary on the Daoist Laozi, set up a school to prepare candidates for examinations on Daoist scriptures, and called upon the Indian monk Vajrabodhi (671–741) to perform Tantric rites to avert a drought in the year 726. In 742 Emperor Xuanzong personally held the incense burner during the ceremony of the Ceylonese monk Amoghavajra (705–774) reciting "mystical incantations to secure the victory of Tang forces." In addition, if religion played a role in politics, then politics played a role in religion as well. In the year 714, Emperor Xuanzong forbade shops and vendors in the city of Chang'an to sell copied Buddhist sutras, instead giving the Buddhist clergy of the monasteries the sole right to distribute sutras to the laity. In the previous year of 713, Emperor Xuanzong had liquidated the highly lucrative Inexhaustible Treasury, which was run by a prominent Buddhist monastery in Chang'an. This monastery collected vast amounts of money, silk, and treasures through multitudes of anonymous people's repentances, leaving the donations on the monastery's premise. Although the monastery was generous in donations, Emperor Xuanzong issued a decree abolishing their treasury on grounds that their banking practices were fraudulent, collected their riches, and distributed the wealth to various other Buddhist monasteries, Daoist abbeys, and to repair statues, halls, and bridges in the city.
唐朝主要的地方官阶如下：
州（郡）首领：刺史（太守）；
别驾、长史、司马；
录事、参军事；
六曹：司功、司仓、司户、司兵、司法、司士.
县：县令；
县丞、主簿；
县尉、录事、佐史.
乡：耆老；
里：里正；
村：村正；
保：保长；
邻：邻长.
四家一邻,五邻一保,五保一里,五里一乡；一自然村为一村.城市内无村设坊,坊正和村正同级.
唐朝沿用隋朝制订的三省六部制,主要机构有三省、六部、一台、五监、九寺.三省即为中书省,门下省,尚书省.尚书省下设立吏、户、礼、兵、刑、工六部.此外中央还有殿中省和秘书省,只是这两省职能不大.尚书省为全国最高行政机构,长官本为尚书令,但因唐太宗曾任尚书令,后以左、右仆射为首.中书省是皇帝颁布大政文书的机构,长官为中书令,副手为中书侍郎,下有中书舍人六人,此外右散骑常侍、右谏议大夫等谏官.门下省则是审核大政文书之机构.由於尚书权力太大,因此后来设立左右仆射（射读作yè）代行大权.左右仆射就是宰相.后来,此二职要加同中书门下的头衔才是宰相.但中书令和门下侍中的名位很高,也不常设.於是,给其他管理加上参预朝政、参议朝政、参议得失、同中书门下三品等头衔就为宰相.宰相平时在政事堂讨论朝政,政事堂会议成为协助皇帝统治的最高决策机构.
六部分管各种具体行政事务,下各设四司.六部有高低之分,吏、兵二部为前行,户、刑二部为中行,礼、工二部为后行.其中吏部主管全国文官升迁,下设吏部、司封、司勋、考功四司；户部掌管全国土地、民众、财赋,下设户部、度支、金部、仓部四司；礼部掌管祭祀,下设礼部、祠部、膳部等四司；兵部负责武人选举、地图、车马、兵械等事务,下设兵部、职方、驾部、库都四司.刑部主管律令刑事,下设刑部、都官、比部、司门四司；工部负责山泽、纸笔、屯田、工匠等事务,下设工部、屯田、虞都、水部四司.三省六部制在中国政治史上具有重要地位.
一台就是御史台,其负责监察中央和地方管理,参与大狱的审讯.其长官为御史大夫,副长官是御史中丞.五监为国子监（掌文教）；少府监（掌皇家工业生产）；将作监（掌国家工程）；军器监（兵器制造）；都水监（掌水利建设）.九寺有太常寺（掌礼仪祭祀）；光禄寺（掌皇室食物）；卫尉寺（掌兵器和仪仗）；宗正寺（掌皇室族谱）；太仆寺（掌皇帝车马）；大理寺（掌刑法）；鸿胪寺（掌邦交典礼）；司农寺（掌国家仓储）；太府寺（掌国家财政）.此外,唐朝还有三师（太师、太傅、太保）,三公（太尉,司徒,司空）等荣誉职务.此外,唐朝在其前期还设立过如节度使、盐铁转运使、枢密使等临时职务,后来则成为定职.
隋代成立的科举制度在初唐时期还不完善,朝中的政治仍然被关陇贵族集团所垄断.到了武则天执政后,他大力起用通过科举进入政府的平民官僚,贵族政治的局面至此开始瓦解.唐朝中期以后,贵族官僚已经几乎不复存在,但是科举士人却进行牛李党争,这场党争持续长达四十年,严重败坏朝政.
唐朝中后期也与汉朝后期和明朝后期成为中国历史上三个宦官时代.唐朝早期,宦官并没有什麼权力,自玄宗时代高力士得宠以来,宦官的地位步步高升,开始直接参与政治.后来伴随者宦官对兵权的掌握,皇帝的废立都掌握在宦官的手中.这以「甘露之变」表现得最为突出.而在朱全忠诛灭了全部宦官之后,唐朝也很快灭亡.显示宦官已与皇帝形成了命运共同体.
唐朝的法律分为律、令、格、式四种.律是刑法典；令是指国家对各项制度所做出的具体规定（如《户令》）；式是各项行政法规（如《水部式》）；格则是对律令式做出的补充修改.《唐律》是根据隋朝《开皇律》修正而来.自李渊时代开始制订,在唐太宗时才宣告完成.至高宗永徽年间又对唐律进行了全面解释,与《唐律》合称为《永徽律疏》.后世则称呼为《唐律疏典》.唐律分十二篇,共五百零二条,刑名则有五种.