关于科学的定义（2-2）Sophisticated Methodological Falsification (Lakatos 1978)The direction of science is determined mainly by human creative imagination and not the universe of facts.Thus,the rational reconstruction of scientific progress o

关于科学的定义（2-2）Sophisticated Methodological Falsification (Lakatos 1978)The direction of science is determined mainly by human creative imagination and not the universe of facts.Thus,the rational reconstruction of scientific progress o
关于科学的定义（2-2）
Sophisticated Methodological Falsification (Lakatos 1978)
The direction of science is determined mainly by human creative imagination and not the universe of facts.Thus,the rational reconstruction of scientific progress occurs in the world of ideas.
The process by which research programs are established,justified,and accepted throughout a scientific community are needed to appreciate science.
Criticism of scientific theories is based on empirical evidence,but abandonment of a research program involves extra-experimental considerations.
The demarcation of science from pseudoscience is objective in the world of ideas and propositions.Theoretical commitment is an issue of the world of mental states,beliefs,and consequences.
Scientific knowledge is never absolute.Appraisal must involve a series of theories; any part of the body of science is replaceable but only in a "progressive" way,i.e.,substitutes must successfully anticipate novel facts.
Whether a proposition is a fact or a proposition in a test situation depends on a scientist's methodological decision within the context of a research program.
Absolute truth may not be achievable by science,but scientific research programs may yet in the long run lead to ever more true and fewer false consequences and,thus,have increasing verisimilitude.
If science aims at truth,it must aim at maintaining consistency as an important regulative principle.Inconsistency must be seen as a problem to be resolved.
There are norms for doing good science.In addition to Hunt's criteria,research programs must be evaluated by their heuristic power-how many new facts do they produce and how capable are they in explaining refutations during their development.
A theory is "scientific" only if it has corroborated excess empirical content over its rival,i.e.,only if it leads to the discovery of novel "facts."
While experience still remains an impartial arbiter in scientific (measurement) controversy,the importance of decisions in methodology should not be neglected,
The empirical testing process provides the ultimately necessary but never sufficient grounds for refutation,No experiment,observation state,or well-corroborated low-level falsifying hypothesis can lead to falsification without the emergence of better theories.A historical emphasis is required,
Relativism/Constructionism (Peter and Olson 1983)
The process by which theories are created,justified,and diffused through a research community are needed to understand science.
Truth is a subjective evaluation that cannot be properly inferred outside of the context provided by the theory.
Science is rational to the degree that it seeks to improve individual and societal well-being by following whatever means are useful for doing so.
There are many ways of doing science validly that are appropriate in different situations.

关于科学的定义（2-2）Sophisticated Methodological Falsification (Lakatos 1978)The direction of science is determined mainly by human creative imagination and not the universe of facts.Thus,the rational reconstruction of scientific progress o
Sophisticated Methodological Falsification (Lakatos 1978)
The direction of science is determined mainly by human creative imagination and not the universe of facts.Thus,the rational reconstruction of scientific progress occurs in the world of ideas.
科学前进的方法很大程度上决定于人类的创造性想象,并非宇宙中的诸多现象.因此,理性的科学发展改造发生在思想世界.
The process by which research programs are established,justified,and accepted throughout a scientific community are needed to appreciate science.
科学界在建立、检验以及接受研究项目过程中需要重视科学.
Criticism of scientific theories is based on empirical evidence,but abandonment of a research program involves extra-experimental considerations.
对科学理论的批评应该基于实验证据.如果不进行研究项目的话,就需要考虑实验测试以外的因素了.
The demarcation of science from pseudoscience is objective in the world of ideas and propositions.Theoretical commitment is an issue of the world of mental states,beliefs,and consequences.
科学与伪科学的划分从思想世界和论点上来看是客观的.理论保证属于精神状态、信仰以及结果问题.
Scientific knowledge is never absolute.Appraisal must involve a series of theories; any part of the body of science is replaceable but only in a "progressive" way,i.e.,substitutes must successfully anticipate novel facts.
科学知识不是绝对的.评估时需要参照一系列理论依据.科学体系的任一部分都可替换,但是替换的内容是以前内容的推进.也就是说,替换内容必须成功的预测可能发生的新奇现象.
Whether a proposition is a fact or a proposition in a test situation depends on a scientist's methodological decision within the context of a research program.
某个主张是否是事实或是否处于检测状态取决于科学家在研究项目环境中做出的方法决策.
Absolute truth may not be achievable by science,but scientific research programs may yet in the long run lead to ever more true and fewer false consequences and,thus,have increasing verisimilitude.
科学不可能解析绝对的事实,但是,从长远看来,科学研究项目能够让我们了解更加真实,更少虚假的结果,更加接近本质.
If science aims at truth,it must aim at maintaining consistency as an important regulative principle.Inconsistency must be seen as a problem to be resolved.
如果科学旨在揭示真实,那么就需要把保持连贯性作为一个重要的管理原则.非连贯性应该被视为急需解决的问题.
There are norms for doing good science.In addition to Hunt's criteria,research programs must be evaluated by their heuristic power-how many new facts do they produce and how capable are they in explaining refutations during their development.
研究科学是有规范准则的.除了Hunt的标准外,研究项目应该根据项目的启发能力来进行评估：
A theory is "scientific" only if it has corroborated excess empirical content over its rival,i.e.,only if it leads to the discovery of novel "facts."
如果一个理论要归入科学范畴,它需要详尽阐释实验内容依据,数目要比理论反面依据多.如,它能够引导发现更多未发现事实.
While experience still remains an impartial arbiter in scientific (measurement) controversy,the importance of decisions in methodology should not be neglected,
经验在仲裁科学（检验）分歧时依旧保持中立,但方法论决策的重要性也不可忽视.
The empirical testing process provides the ultimately necessary but never sufficient grounds for refutation,No experiment,observation state,or well-corroborated low-level falsifying hypothesis can lead to falsification without the emergence of better theories.A historical emphasis is required,
实验检测过程为驳斥提供了基础,至关重要,但却显不足.不进行实验观察,或详尽阐释低水平捏造的假说,都可能引起谬论,无法提出好的理论.因此,需要强调历史因素.
Relativism/Constructionism (Peter and Olson 1983)
相对论科学/法律解释论科学
The process by which theories are created,justified,and diffused through a research community are needed to understand science.
要理解科学就需要在科研所里提出和辩证理论,并随后进行理论推广.
Truth is a subjective evaluation that cannot be properly inferred outside of the context provided by the theory.
事实只是主观评断,无法推断理论环境以外的东西.
Science is rational to the degree that it seeks to improve individual and societal well-being by following whatever means are useful for doing so.
科学是理性的.它遵照有利个人和社会来追求个人的进步和社会的安康.
There are many ways of doing science validly that are appropriate in different situations.
在不同场合有很多种方式正当地研究科学.